Mitigating Natural Disasters in the Indo-Pacific: A Study of Sri Lanka’s Naval and Coast Guard Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief Operations

 

In this modern era, the intricate interlinking of human security with national security transcends geographical distinctions such as coastal, littoral, and landlocked states. The Indo-Pacific, a region significant for its trade routes, choke points, sea lines of communication, and ports and harbors, is under the formidable threat of natural disasters. These disasters pose a universal risk, given the region’s paramount importance to prosperity and development.^[1]

Over the past two decades, the Indo-Pacific has witnessed a rapid surge in natural disasters, wreaking havoc on all actors.^[2] Sri Lanka, though small and littoral, has gained prominence due to its geostrategic location, becoming a nexus for state interaction and academic research.

Engaging with public and international agencies present in the Indian Ocean region (IOR), Sri Lanka both offers and receives support in times of need. As a signatory of the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) 1974, Sri Lanka operates a Maritime Rescue Coordinating Center under the Sri Lanka Navy to ensure SOLAS.^[3]

Therefore, this research has selected Sri Lanka as a case study. The core argument of the research underscores the enduring efforts of the Sri Lanka Navy and Coast Guard, along with their collective and cooperative measures in their jurisdictions, to manage natural disasters in their oceanic spaces. This demonstrates their palpable commitment and concern for human and regional security.

This research, underpinned by a qualitative approach and analytically bolstered by quantitative data from open sources, utilizes primary, secondary, and tertiary data. Primary sources encompass unclassified data from Sri Lankan agencies and in-depth structured interviews with four pertinent practitioners and instructors. However, due to official constraints, the identities of three interviewees remain undisclosed.^[4]

Secondary and tertiary sources form the academic foundation of this research. The objectives of this study are manifold: to elucidate Sri Lanka’s disaster relief and management mechanism, to recognize and analyze the persistent efforts of the Sri Lanka Navy (SLN) and Coast Guard (SLCG) in providing humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR), to expound on the efficacy of the SLN and SLCG in HADR operations, and to underscore the cooperative role of the SLN and SLCG within the region in terms of HADR management. 

Sri Lanka, a significant player in the Indo-Pacific Region, has long engaged its Navy and Coast Guard in managing natural disasters and conducting HADR operations.^[5] According to respondent Z, the SLN plays an important role in the Indian Ocean, providing rescue and relief efforts in line with its capacities, assets, and responsibilities.^[6]

The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of Sri Lanka eight times the size of its landmass.^[7] Furthermore, its regional rescue responsible area and shared rescue operation and response area are 27 times larger than Sri Lanka’s geographical size.^[8]

In dealing with natural disasters, Sri Lanka operates both independently and in cooperation with regional and extra-regional actors in various HADR operations, demonstrating its commitment to humanity and goodwill within the region. Collaborations with the Maldives, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Japan further strengthen its HADR efforts.^[9]

At the government level, the Maritime Disaster Agency of Sri Lanka plays a pivotal role, with the Maritime Disaster Center also tasked with managing natural disasters within the country. In times of need, the SLN engages private sector agencies, including shipping lines or companies and other public entities, on a payment basis. These entities contribute effectively to managing maritime disasters in Sri Lanka’s maritime zones.

This research delves into Sri Lanka’s efficacy in managing natural disasters, providing humanitarian assistance, and conducting disaster relief management both on the island and in cooperation with the region. The research is grounded in a conceptual framework developed by synthesizing the concept of human security and neo-liberal institutionalism theory. The fundamental concept of human security, which emerged in the twentieth century, is rooted in human rights. This concept and its functions hinge upon understanding human vulnerabilities; therefore, it identifies, considers, and addresses the needs of communities affected by disasters. Providing necessary resources to affected areas and communities falls under human security. Furthermore, offering assistance to areas prone to floods, coastal erosion, cyclones, and so forth, is part of human security’s mandate to ensure the safety of individuals and communities.

The Indo-Pacific has historically grappled with a multitude of natural and anthropogenic disasters. Anthropogenic disasters largely stem from industrial and environmental incidents in oceans and seas, encompassing oil spills, chemical spills, epidemics, explosions, and transport accidents, among others. Natural disasters in the region bifurcate into hydro-climatic and geophysical disasters.

These disasters leave an indelible impact on all facets of life, with human beings bearing the brunt of such incidents in maritime zones. Consequently, there is an imperative need to implement appropriate measures to safeguard human life and national security. In this endeavor, affected communities are actively involved in the decision-making, planning, and execution of disaster preparedness.

The human security framework, in relation to disaster management, underscores comprehensive security and regional and international cooperation. This is because the navy and agencies of a single nation-state cannot single-handedly manage disaster response in the expansive Indo-Pacific.                                                                                              

Efficacy of Sri Lanka Navy and Coast Guard in HADR Operations in Its Maritime Zones

The SLN primarily handles HADR operations , demonstrating proficiency in rescue and relief actions in green waters. Conversely, the Sri Lanka Coast Guard (SLCG) relies on the SLN for skills and expertise. Both entities exhibit commendable disaster response and training skills within territorial waters. However, in blue waters, the SLN’s capabilities exist but not on a grand scale.

According to Jayarathna, HADR operations by the SLN and SLCG are conducted in green waters due to their limited capacity to address disasters in blue waters. The Sri Lanka Navy and Coast Guard provide HADR in green waters, as Sri Lanka’s capacity to operate in blue waters is limited. During his analysis of the SLN’s capacity, Jayarathna notes the efficacy of the SLN in Sri Lanka’s inland waters, stating that ‘Sri Lanka only provides inward assistance (within the territory) when it comes to natural disasters such as floods.”[10]

Sri Lanka has provided its most effective HADR assistance in response to two major incidents within its maritime zones (green waters), as per respondents X and Y.

The first incident occurred on 20 May 2021, when chemical fume emissions erupted from the Singapore-flagged MV X-Press Pearl, a feeder vessel containership. The ship was anchored approximately 9 nautical miles (17km) northwest of the Port of Colombo in Sri Lankan national waters.

The second incident transpired on April 19, 2021, when the New Diamond, a crude oil-carrying very large crude carrier, met with an accident in the eastern coastal area of Sri Lanka. This incident had a devastating impact on Sri Lankan waters.[11]

When boats find themselves in distress within Sri Lanka’s territorial waters, the SLN does not require assistance from neighboring countries, as they are capable of conducting rescues independently. Thus, when local boats rescue a fishing boat in distress, the SLN assumes control of the boat in territorial waters and manages the contingency on their own, given its affordability and availability.

Primarily, these situations involve fishermen who are facing issues with their boat or serious health or life conditions. This could include instances where the boat is stuck, destroyed, or damaged, or when a fisherman is in a critical health situation (such as a heart patient) and requires immediate assistance, which is provided by Sri Lanka. In such scenarios, the SLN coordinates with merchant shipping for immediate rescue.

Table 1. SAR operations to promote HADR by Sri Lanka Navy and Coast Guard from January 2020 to September 2023. (Source: Data is compiled by the authors.)

Year	Crew or Individuals	Nature of Accident	Respondents (Navy/ Coast Guards)	Place/ Coordinates
13 January 2020	6 fishermen	leakage in hull	Navy	Seas of Hambantota Port
14 January 2020	1 fisherman	fisherman get ill at sea	Navy	Southern Seas
16 January 2020	1	injured fisherman	Navy	138 nm northeast point of Point Pedro
27 January 2020	Group of Indian fishermen	Indian fisher trawler stressed	Navy	11 nm west of Analathivu
26 January 2020	1	injured fisherman	Navy	40nm north of Foul Point Light House
21 July 2020	13 crew on board	power failure of Kenyan flagged vessel	Navy	170 nautical miles south of Sri Lanka
3 August 2020	1	ill at sea	Navy	50 nm southeast of Galle
3 September 2020	23	fire breaks out on Panama-flagged New Diamond oil tanker	Sri Lanka Navy, Sri Lanka Air Force, Sri Lanka Ports Authority, the Indian Navy and the Indian Coast Guard	38 nm off Sangamankanda Point East of Sri Lanka
7 November 2020	-	fire-hit fishing trawler (fire in engine room)	Navy	seas off Koggala
13 January 2021	2 Indian fishermen	engine failure of fishing trawler	Navy	The trawler has searched while it was crossing the International Maritime Boundary Line
15 January 2021	2 fishermen	failure of dinghy’s outboard motor	Navy	Indian Waters
23 January 2021	Bulk carrier	no leakage of water and oil	Navy	5.5 nautical miles southeastern coast of the island
27 February 2021	2 fishermen	dinghy’s technical failure	Navy	International Maritime Boundary Line
29 March 2021	7	fire eruption in fishing trawler	Coast Guard	Dikkowita
2 June 2021	4	distressed fishing vessel	Navy	40 nautical miles off Galle (southern seas)
4 June 2021	29 flood victims	flood	Navy	Puttalam district
5 June 2021	66	flood	Navy	Gampaha and Kalutara districts
6 June 2021	27	flood	Navy	Gampaha district
6 June 2021	1	ill fisherman	Navy	85 nautical miles southwest of Beruwala
4 August 2021	1	ill fisherman	Navy	1 nautical miles off Galle Lighthouse
18 September 2021	2	injured fishermen	Coast Guard	120 nautical miles off Galle
26 September 2021	-	accident mid-sea	Navy	30 nautical miles off Trincomalee
18 October 2021	2	sunken fishing vessel	Navy	International Maritime Boundary Line
8 November 2021	71	flood	Navy	Puttalam district
23 November 2021	6 dead bodies, 12 persons rescued	ferry accident	Navy	Kurinchankerny bridge in Kinniya, Trincomalee
8 January 2022	5 fishermen	distress in multiday fishing trawler	Navy	Galle Harbor
21 February 2022	1	ill fisherman	Navy	115 nautical miles off the Galle Lighthouse
22 March 2022	-	distressed foreign sailing boat	Navy	seas south of Hambantota
10 April 2022	5 fishermen	distressed fisherman	Navy	40 nautical miles off Galle
15 May 2022	1	ill fisherman	Navy	18 nautical miles off Valaichchenai
20 June 2022	5 persons in distress	mechanical failure to local multiday fishing trawler	MRCC Pakistan and MRCC Mumbai	Arabian Sea
11 July 2022	3 fishermen	distressed local fishing trawler	Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre (MRCC) Colombo	174 nautical miles from the Great Basses Reef Lighthouse
31 July 2022	6 fishermen	mechanical failure of the engine of a defunct trawler	Navy	International Maritime Boundary Line
2 August 2022	3 fishermen	capsized small fishing boat	Navy	Inshore Patrol Craft P 244 of Trincomalee
11August 2022	5 fishermen	mechanical failure of fishing trawler	Navy	68 nautical miles off the Galle Lighthouse
19 August 2022	6 fishermen	fishing trawler in distress	Coast Guard	18.5 nautical miles off Dondra in southern waters
23 August 2022	1	ill fishermen	Navy	47 nautical miles northeast of the Foul Point, Trincomalee
23 September 2022	1	ill fishermen	Navy	65 nautical miles northeast of the Foul Point, Trincomalee
28 September 2022	-	mechanical failure of Indian fishing trawler	Navy	26 nautical miles off Point Pedro in northern waters.
1 October 2022	38 local tourists	leakage of seawater into the craft	Navy and Coast Guard	-
18 October 2022	6 naval personnel	mechanical failure while engaging in a special surveillance operation (Naval Craft)	Navy	400 nautical miles towards high seas southeast of the island
11 December 2022	4 fishermen	fishing trawler in distress	Navy	46 nautical miles off the Sangaman Kanda Point
13 December 2022	3 fishermen	distressed trawler	Navy	180 nautical miles off Dondra Point
18 December 2022	104 distressed Myanmar nationals aboard	distressed passenger craft	Navy	3.5 nautical miles north of Veththalakerni
2 February 2023	4 fishermen in distress	fishing trawler had collided against a reef in the sea area	Navy	Lankapatuna in Trincomalee
17 February 2023	6 fishermen	ill fisherman	Navy	5.3 nautical miles east of Hambantota
10 March 2023	6 fishermen	distressed fishing trawler	Navy	54 nautical miles off the eastern coast
14 May 2023	6 fishermen	distressed fishing trawler	Navy and Coast Guard	8 nautical miles off the Beruwala Lighthouse
14 May 2023	-	flood	Navy	in Galle, Akuressa, Kotapola, Nagoda, Thawalama, Kamburupitiya and Athuraliya
26 May 2023	1	Ill fisherman	Navy	460 nautical miles off the coast of Galle
7 July 2023	9 crew members	Atulya and tug Avadh drift	Navy	Nadukuda coast in Mannar south, northwest of Sri Lanka
11 July 2023	5 crew members	assistance to bring ashore fisherman with burn injuries for medical attention	Navy	431 nautical miles off the coast of Galle, southwest of Sri Lanka
1 August 2023	1	ill fishermen	Navy	20 nautical miles southeast of Hambantota
11 August 2023	7 fishermen	fire-hit fishing trawler	Navy	58 nautical miles (approx. 107km) off the Galle Lighthouse, west of Sri Lanka
21 August 2023	six crew members	injured fisherman	Navy	Kudawella fisheries harbor
17 September 2023	3 distressed fishermen	mechanical failure in fishing vessel	Navy	Indian waters north of Sri Lanka

 

Sri Lanka boasts several communication networks that are instrumental in disaster management. These include commercial GSM and Military Communication Networks, both of which span the entire island.^[12] In addition, the Sri Lanka Navy and the Irrigation Department of Sri Lanka maintain a Web-Based Flood Monitoring System for disseminating information to decision-makers at various levels.^[13] The Navy employs an up-to-date operational mechanism known as Operation Cloud-Burst to respond to floods. Once activated, this operational order outlines the actions for each responder and standard operating procedures for each activity related to flood relief operations. Furthermore, the Sri Lanka Navy is equipped with high-frequency satellite communication.

The Surveillance Fusion Center lends its support to the SLN in surveillance operations, with the SLN integrating some of the latest technology, including Global Wisher. Sri Lanka is equipped with an early warning system, inclusive of a tsunami early warning system operated by the DMC. The SLN employs radar and automatic identification system (AIS) surveillance within Sri Lanka. Moreover, for flood relief operations, the practiced system has evolved over the years to manage monsoonal rains. However, the surveillance and prediction of landslide susceptibility necessitate enhancement with new technology.^[14]

     The SLN collaborates with two communication centers, one in India and the other in Singapore, within the Indian Ocean. These communication channels operate through the Maritime Rescue Coordination Center (MRCC) at the Colombo headquarters. The MRCC, a distinct entity, cooperates within the region and responds to distressed boats and ships in Sri Lanka’s search and rescue region (SRR).^[15]

The efficacy of HADR operations hinges significantly on response time, which varies depending on the area and the situation. The SLN exhibits rapid response and deployment in territorial waters and between the EEZ and territorial waters (24nm).^[16]

In blue waters, the SLN ensures continuous surveillance and patrolling of its maritime zones. Beyond the EEZ, the SLN seeks support from neighboring countries, including India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, as well as foreign merchant vessels navigating through Sri Lankan waters, for assistance and transfer to offshore patrol areas. For blue water disasters, response mechanisms are anchored in maritime domain awareness and the Information Fusion Centre–Colombo, both maintained by the navy. The MRCC exercises its own response and control mechanism, collaborating with stakeholders such as the air force and regional partnerships.

Oil spill accidents are deemed critical situations in the maritime domain. The SLCG, equipped with two ships capable of responding to oil spills, has received these assets as donations from the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force and Japan Coast Guard through the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in 2023. In a similar vein, they have been granted trading opportunities and support for HADR operations. The United States has also extended considerable support for capacity building purposes, among others.

The SLN possesses capabilities for hilly operations and boarding operations and provides training for HADR operations in countries such as the Maldives. Representatives from India, Bangladesh, Iran, and Pakistan also receive local training, including from the Special Boat Squadron, the SLN’s special forces unit, which offers international training primarily for transnational crimes. This training also aids in disaster rescue and relief management.

Exploring Regional Collaboration Initiatives of Sri Lankan Agencies within the Region

The SLN and SLCG engage in HADR training activities with visiting foreign navies, as directed by the government.^[17] Additionally, Sri Lanka participates in exercises pertinent to humanitarian assistance and disaster management with regional and international actors to bolster its capabilities in handling natural disasters. Both entities are adept at extending their expertise within the region. The SLN collaborates with the navies of India, the United States, Bangladesh, Maldives, Nepal, Japan, and Pakistan, and cooperates with regional and international maritime rescue agencies.

Numerous agencies, both governmental and intergovernmental, operate in the IOR, such as the Asia Pacific Disaster Response Fund (APDRF), which serves a life-saving purpose in the event of natural disasters. These agencies and similar response bodies fundamentally engage with Sri Lanka in training and capacity-building initiatives. HADR operations necessitate continuous training and collaboration for precise rescue and action. Primarily, the SLCG, in collaboration with the JICA, provides substantial support for capacity building and skill development.

Numerous maritime exercises are conducted in collaboration with the United States and other regional states, including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Maldives, and Japan. These exercises further bolster HADR efforts. Other objectives of these exercises include cooperation in surveillance and interdiction operations. The exercises conducted periodically between the US Navy and the SLN include Balance/Flash Style Exercises, Cooperate Afloat Readiness and Training (CARAT), Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC), and South Asia Cooperation and Training (SEACAT).

Sri Lanka both offers and receives support from neighboring countries in times of need. India, Indonesia, and Australia, located on the eastern side of Sri Lanka’s SRR, and India and Maldives, on the western side, are such neighbors. Notably, in April 2015, Sri Lanka extended assistance to Nepal.^[18]

A notable HADR incident in 2018 involved a school football team trapped inside a sea cave in Thailand. The expert guidance of SLN divers aided Thailand in devising the rescue action.^[19] Despite this, the SLN and the Sri Lanka Coast Guard (SLCG) possess the capabilities to provide effective assistance in HADR through their skills.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Natural disasters wreak havoc on maritime infrastructure, economies, and societal peace and progress. Sri Lanka has proven to be responsive, operational, and effective in managing inland disasters and providing humanitarian assistance within its territorial zones. From a regional perspective, states cooperate under standard operating procedures, fostering regional cooperation and connectivity.

This research, based on its core argument and discussion, establishes three corollaries. The first corollary underscores that human security and disaster management in the maritime domain are grave concerns for all littoral countries and island nations. This is also inevitable for Sri Lanka, not only due to its environmental matters, economic interests, and the endangerment of living beings, but also for all relevant actors within the region.

Sri Lanka has made significant contributions to disaster relief management within its maritime zones. However, there is a need to enhance cooperation, re-evaluate strategies and techniques to mitigate the effects of natural disasters, improve the efficiency of operations, and adopt modern methods to enhance the efficacy of HADR operations in the Indo-Pacific. This is because human security and disaster management are grave concerns not only for Sri Lanka’s environmental matters, economic interests, and the endangerment of living beings, but also for all relevant actors within the region.

The second corollary pertains to the level and scope of cooperation for HADR operations conducted by Sri Lanka in the Indo-Pacific. This cooperation, while effective, is tactical in nature. Its scope is confined to disaster response and lacks multifaceted collaborations. Sri Lanka is proficient in search and rescue operations within their maritime zones and areas of jurisdiction. The Sri SLN is capable of providing skilled human resources for any kind of disaster in the region upon the request of neighboring countries, and also seeks help when necessary. However, cooperation is tactically limited to the rescue of boats, ships, and crew in distress.

This cooperation should be expanded to other fields under a comprehensive mechanism or framework. This would allow for periodic efficacy checks and the rectification of flaws in the path of constructive cooperation. Such cooperation should not only function during natural disasters, but also implement countermeasures/preemptive measures and work on the modernization of strategies to mitigate the effects of natural disasters.

The third corollary underscores the need for capacity building and modernization, aimed at enhancing Sri Lanka’s role in the Indo-Pacific. This necessitates expanding the scope beyond specific fields, including training programs within the region. There is a need to allocate budget and funding for the acquisition of modern technologies. Mechanization is required for extensive surveillance and patrolling. The current need is to utilize unmanned drones and surveillance for immediate accident reporting.

Furthermore, the utilization, implementation, and power projection of SLN assets to enhance Sri Lanka’s coastal water capability need to be reconfigured. In addition to this, the SLN places a high emphasis on fast attack crafts and gunboats, and similar types of platforms where the SLN can operate in coastal waters.

Numerous regional and international agencies are present in the region, offering support to distressed boats and ships and providing humanitarian assistance and relief. The SLN and SLCG, despite possessing skills and human capital, lack the latest technology, rendering their role in the region less apparent and effective. However, they offer intellectual, human, and skill support in the region, engaging with the Maldives, Pakistan, Japan, Bangladesh, India, the United States, and the United Nations. The SLN is prepared to support the region through diplomatic channels to neighboring states upon request. There is a need to adopt various initiatives, such as maritime patrolling at the regional level, to enhance institutionalism and extend Sri Lanka’s outreach to the Strait of Malacca. ♦

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Laraib Ali

Currently serving as the CEO of Creative Psyches, Ms. Laraib Ali leads the research department. An accomplished scholar, she holds an MPhil degree from the National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad. Her research interests encompass maritime security (both traditional and non-traditional), regionalism, regional responses, and the geopolitics of the Indian Ocean region. Showcasing her commitment to advancing knowledge in these maritime-related critical domains, she can be reached via email at ali111.laraib1@gmail.com.

Dr. Maliha Zeba Khan

Dr. Khan serves as an assistant professor in the Department of International Relations at the National University of Modern Languages, Islamabad. Her research interests encompass foreign policy, maritime issues, and all aspects of blue, including the Blue Economy and Blue Diplomacy. She has made significant academic contributions in the fields of nontraditional maritime security and law enforcement at sea. She has introduced a variety of courses at the BS and MPhil levels, covering diverse areas of the maritime domain. Additionally, she offers consultancy services to national and international stakeholders in the maritime domain. She can be reached at mzeba@numl.edu.pk and malihazkhan@gmail.com.

Notes

^[1] Francis Gassert, Sharon Burke, and Rachel Zimmerman, UPTEMPO: The United States and Natural Disasters in the Pacific (Washington: New America, 31 March 2020), 8, https://d1y8sb8igg2f8e.cloudfront.net/.

^[2] Charlotte Benson et al., The Enabling Environment for Disaster Risk Financing in Sri Lanka (Manila: Asian Development Bank, February 2019), 15, https://www.adb.org/. 

^[3] “Navy renders assistance to Kenyan flagged vessel in distress at High Seas,” Sri Lanka Navy, 4 August 2020, https://news.navy.lk/.

^[4] The names of respondents who remain undisclosed are represented as respondent X, respondent Y, and respondent Z throughout the study.

^[5] Dhruva Jaishankar, “Maritime Connectivity and Security in the Indo-Pacific” (presentation, Kalinga International Foundation, Bhubaneshwar, 2019), https://www.brookings.edu/.

^[6] The practitioner from the SLN, referred to as Respondent Z, discussed the assets of the SLN. He stated that during the Sri Lankan Civil War, there were “three offshore vessels and two logistic vessels to operate in blue waters. The Sri Lanka Navy (SLN) consisted of approximately 60 fast attack aircraft, 15 boats, 100 aircraft and small boats, and 50 inshore patrol craft. Furthermore, the small platforms were used for war tactics, primarily to engage with SLN counterparts in the coastal areas.”

^[7] Buddhika Liyanagamage, “Future Maritime Security Concerns of the Sri Lanka Navy: Challenges Versus Solutions” (thesis, US Naval Postgraduate School, December 2018), https://apps.dtic.mil/.

^[8] Ajith Panditha Wickramasekara, “Transnational Organized Crime and New Terrorism in Sri Lanka: A Nexus?” (thesis, US Naval Postgraduate School, December 2017), https://apps.dtic.mil/.

^[9] Respondents X and Y talked about other states’ collaborations with Sri Lanka regarding HADR, Sri Lanka Navy Disaster Management Training School, Gangewadiya.

[10] Rear Admiral Y. N. Jayarathna, SLN, Retired, interview with the authors.

[11] Respondents X and Y, belonging to Sri Lanka Navy Disaster Management Training School, Gangewadiya spoke during the interview about the two major incidents where massive HADR assistance was provided by Sri Lanka in effective manner.

^[12] Towards a Safer Sri Lanka: A Road Map for Disaster Risk Management; vol. 2: Project Proposals (Colombo: Ministry of Disaster Management and Human Rights, April 2006), 80, https://www.preventionweb.net/. 

^[13] “Hydrology & disaster management,” Irrigation Department (Sri Lanka), n.d., https://www.irrigation.gov.lk/; and David Rogers, Geoff Love, and Bruce Stewart, Meteorological And Hydrological Services in Sri Lanka: A Review (Washington: Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery, 2011), 5,  https://www.gfdrr.org/. 

^[14] F.N. Abdeen et al., “Corrigendum to ‘Challenges in multi-agency collaboration in disaster management: A Sri Lankan perspective’,” International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 63 (2021), 2, https://doi.org/.

^[15] Practitioner from Sri Lanka Navy.

^[16] Practitioner from Sri Lanka Navy.

^[17] SLN BR 1: Maritime Doctrine of Sri Lanka (Colombo: Sri Lanka Navy, 2020). 83, https://www.navy.lk/.  

^[18] Government of Sri Lanka, “Sri Lanka contingent returns with accolades from Nepal,” ReliefWeb, 12 May 2015, https://reliefweb.int/.

^[19] Practitioner from Sri Lanka Navy; and “The full story of Thailand’s extraordinary cave rescue,” BBC, 13 July 2018, https://www.bbc.com/.