Strike Up the Band: Music in the American Civil War and Contemporary Conflict Published July 29, 2024 By Maj. Andrew Sexton Wild Blue Yonder--Maxwell AFB -- “The only thing good to come out of a war is a song.”[1] –Johnny Cash From Black Sabbath’s “War Pigs” to Creedence Clearwater Revival’s “Fortunate Son,” songs commonly find their inspiration from the experiences of human conflict in combat. The opposite effect is true as well—music has had a palpable impact on warfare and killing. Through the ages, music has been used to organize and motivate soldiers as they leave their homes for the front lines, as they march into battle, and as they march off the battlefield. During the American Civil War, instruments like the fife, drum, and bugle were used for drill, troop movement, battlefield communications, and ceremonies.[2] But what about more contemporary warfare? While bugle and drum corps largely ceased to march into battle alongside warriors after the Civil War, music continues to shape the killing experience and warfare at large. Comparing the American Civil War to more contemporary warfare before, during, and after battle illustrates the sustained role of music through the ages of warfare and killing. Music, for this discussion, is defined as “the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity.”[3] While many of the examples of music discussed include rhythm, melody, or harmony, some do not. Music may or may not be a thing of beauty. “Twinkle Twinkle Little Star” can be a sweet lullaby as a parent puts their infant to sleep, but as that same child grows and learns the song on violin, it becomes a series of jerky screeches met with a parent’s grimaces and forced smiles. In short, not all music is music to our ears. Prior to troops marching into battle during the Civil War, music was used to rally and recruit. In 1859, the hanging of abolitionist John Brown at Harper’s Ferry provided sympathizers with lyrics that they applied to an existing tune. The song, “John Brown’s Body” uses the melody of the tune we now know as "The Battle Hymn of the Republic."[4] The song featured lyrics such as “John Brown’s body lies a-mouldering in the grave. His soul is marching on,” and “They will hang Jeff Davis to a tree! As they march along!”[5] This provided Union soldiers with a tangible rallying cry that not only explained why they were marching into battle but also reinforced the concept of killing the enemy. Later in the war, “The Battle Cry of Freedom” by George Root was written in response to President Abraham Lincoln’s call for additional troops.[6] Aside from recruiting, it refocused attention on preserving the Union and provided troops with shared pride and individual courage with lyrics like “The Union forever, Hurrah! Boys, hurrah! Down with the traitors, up with the stars; While we rally round the flag boys, rally once again, shouting the battle cry of Freedom.”[7] In contemporary conflict, music is used similarly to motivate those about to deploy. Months after the terrorist attacks on the US homeland, country artist Toby Keith released his song “Courtesy of the Red, White, and Blue.”[8] He sang the lyrics “You'll be sorry that you messed with the U.S. of A….'cause we'll put a boot in you’re a**, it's the American way” to deployed troops during his United Services Organization (USO) tours. In her analysis of the cultural impact of country music, Professor Nadine Hubbs put the song into context, "After 9/11, he had written and was singing it for these working-class kids overseas, many of whom were about to go into harm's way."[9] Like “John Brown’s Body,” Mr. Keith’s song channels anger and offers violence against the adversary as a solution. Although his “boot” falls short of killing, many other lyrics allude to the concept, such as “justice will be served” and “it’s gonna be hell.”[10] Against the backdrop of the Global War on Terror in the mid-2000s, the US Navy used Godsmack’s song “Awake” for its recruiting commercials.[11] The ballad features powerful drums and adrenalizing lyrics that focus on overcoming pain to provide protection for others. Unlike “The Battle Cry of Freedom,” Godsmack’s “Awake” was not written for the war effort. Lead singer Sully Erna stated, “I doubt very seriously that a kid is going to join the Marines of the US Navy because he heard Godsmack in the commercial.”[12] However, a Congressional Budget Office study conducted immediately after the airing of this recruiting campaign shows that the Navy was able to decrease its number of active-duty recruiters and reduce its enlistment bonuses while still meeting its recruiting goals.[13] Leveraging music as a recruiting tool is important as it has a significant impact on an individual's thinking and behavior. The link between music and various cortexes of the brain produces emotional and cognitive responses. Despite the difficult task of predicting exactly how an individual will react to a song, studies have shown that music can provide context to an individual’s experiences, encourage certain behaviors, and influence particular moods—all components that can inspire action.[14] Popular music increases this impact. Earworms can work into an individual's subconscious, stay with them for a long time, and take them back to the recruiting song long after the initial exposure. Popular music can also create a social buzz.[15] The song “John Brown’s Body” took on a life of its own beyond its original lyrics. Confederate soldiers adopted the song for their own use by changing who was hanging from the tree—John Brown instead of Jeff Davis. Furthermore, poet Julia Ward Howe evolved the song from scenes of hanging men to the “righteous scenes” of the “Battle Hymn of the Republic” that we know today.[16] With each iteration, the song was prolonged.[17] Like Johnny Cash’s reflective cover of the emotional ballad “Hurt” by Nine Inch Nails, the newer version gave the previous song a new life. The social buzz behind the song continued to evoke emotions, fight for versions of justice, and work to influence others to join the cause.[18] Marching closer to the fight, music continued to impact those on the Civil War battlefield. As previously mentioned, drums, fifes, and bugles played a significant role for the organization and movement of troops. In fact, ten bands were present at the Battle of Gettysburg.[19] Signals from these musicians would mark the daily battle rhythm of activities including wake-up, lights-out, roll call, and drill. Field musicians marked time while marching and were used to convey commands on the battlefield, as these signals carried much farther than a commander’s voice.[20] The presence of these musicians in today’s combat seems out of place. In fact, drum and bugle corps largely fell out of use for US forces after the Civil War.[21] Despite sunsetting these musicians, much of the music still resonates today. Military installations still mark the beginning of the day with a bugle playing “Reveille” and the end of the day with a bugle playing “Retreat.”[22] Albeit recorded, the music still contributes to communicating daily battle rhythm. Gone are the days of bugles sounding to take cover. Instead, a warbling tone is projected from a loudspeaker indicating indirect fires are imminent.[23] Aside from ceremonies, gone are the days of marching to a drum. However, running cadences have kept units in sync. Originating during World War II, running cadences, or “jodies,” oftentimes use graphic lyrics in call-and-response type chants and jingles.[24] For example: A-10, A-10 flyin’ high; Drop that napalm from the sky! See that Commie down by the river; Drop that napalm watch him quiver!” [25] Themes of killing and death are oftentimes paired with dark humor within cadences. These songs are commonly used in training by those new to the military.[26] Music’s character in preparing troops for the battlefield has evolved, but its nature remains the same. The continued role of music prior to battle is to organize, train, and equip troops to kill. It marks a standardized schedule across the force, applies pressure to conform to the larger body, and desensitizes the idea of killing. Repetition in drill leads to conditioning and trains human reflexes. For example, simply singing “Sweet Caroline!” in a sports crowd will oftentimes lead to a response of “ba! ba! ba!”[27] Similarly, many veterans will spontaneously clinch their fists and pop to attention upon hearing the drumroll prelude to the Star-Spangled Banner. In terms of music, combining the study of Pavlov’s bell with a military culture that dehumanizes killing creates the conditions for troops to kill.[28] The Civil War postured music as a weapon with the introduction of the Rebel Yell. The rebel yell was a tactic used by Confederate fighters where they projected a chorus of high-pitched shouts. Described as a “shrill, ringing scream,” the battle cry was used to intimidate Union forces and boost Confederate morale as they charged forward. Confederate Major John P. Pirtle described its effectiveness this way: “On moved the line unchecked by the heavy fire it met, closer and closer it came, until it seemed that there would be work for the bayonet, when suddenly the Federal line broke, panic-stricken and, in a confused mass, fled to the river.”[29] Various Union soldier accounts describe the sound as fearful, appalling, earsplitting, blood-curdling, and hair-raising. Within the Confederate lines, the rebel yell served to suppress the rebels’ own fears and bolster their morale. One Confederate general reflected: “(The rebel yell) was really an inspiration arising from facing danger and death.” Another Confederate veteran stated, “I said if I ever went into a charge, I wouldn’t holler! But the very first time I fired off my gun I hollered as loud as I could, and I hollered every breath till we stopped.”[30] In contemporary terms, a tactic such as the rebel yell would be classified as “psyops” or psychological operations. Joint Publication 3-13.2 defines the concept as “Planned operations to convey selected information and indicators to foreign audiences to influence their emotions, motives, objective reasoning, and ultimately the behavior of foreign governments, organizations, groups, and individuals.”[31] An example of this occurred during 1989’s OPERATION JUST CAUSE. After General Manuel Noriega annulled the results of the Panamanian election, US forces invaded Panama to depose the dictator and reinstate a democratically elected government. Noriega retreated to the Vatican Embassy where US forces blasted high-decibel music via loudspeakers at him for fifteen days in an attempt to coax him out.[32] The well-curated playlist included “Panama” by Van Halen, “I Fought the Law” by The Clash, and “Run Like Hell” by Pink Floyd.[33] Another example is from OPERATION IRAQI FREEDOM. As US forces entered Fallujah, Humvees blasted AC/DC’s “Hell’s Bells.” Similar to the Confederate rebel yell, US forces sought to push back would-be fighters while instilling courage among their own ranks.[34] Music’s style as a weapon continues to evolve on the battlefield. Despite the change from acapella work in the Civil War to rock ballads in contemporary warfare, the reasons behind using it remain the same. In his book On Killing, Dave Grossman discusses the concept of posturing. He argues that by posturing, soldiers seek to daunt enemies via other means prior to physical conflict. Additionally, this tactic encourages one another and reinforces individual ferocity.[35] This is evident in the rebel yell and the “walk-up music” of Marines in Fallujah. When the rules of engagement prohibited killing Manuel Noriega, music provided a means to reduce his will to fight or resist without resorting to violence. Music’s influence on warfare persisted after battles and between bouts of hostilities. During the Civil War, both Union and Confederate troops would unwind to music played in camp. With talents ranging from beginner to professional and with instruments ranging from acapella to full bands, camps would celebrate victories, console their losses, and prepare for what was to come next.[36] Sometimes this occurred away from camp. As one Confederate soldier wrote about his regiment’s train ride through North Carolina: “Some of us were on top of the cars; one fellow playing a fiddle, another fellow down in the car blowing a horn, all happy lords, yet knowing that at the same time we were going right into another big killing and many of us would go to our long homes.”[37] While many songs of the era provided accompaniment to dancing, others offered introspection. In addition to offering themes related to memories of family and nostalgia of home, the song “Just Before the Battle, Mother” also offered the themes of purpose, justice, and continued motivation.[38] The final verse goes: “Hark! I hear the bugles sounding, ‘tis the signal for the fight; Now, may God protect us, mother, as He ever does the right; Hear the “Battle-Cry of Freedom,” how it swells upon the air; Oh, yes, we’ll rally ’round the standard, or we’ll perish nobly there.”[39] Music continues to accompany troops in contemporary warfare providing entertainment, motivation, and comfort. The 2010 documentary Restrepo follows a platoon of US soldiers in the Korengal Valley of Afghanistan. At the time, it was considered one of the most dangerous valleys in the war. PFC Juan Restrepo was the medic of his group and toted a guitar into the deployment. Guitar in hand, he would accompany and entertain his fellow soldiers between engagements until he was killed by Taliban fighters. In the documentary, the outlet of music was a critical feature to boost morale, reflect on loss, or simply decelerate an adrenaline-fueled year in combat.[40] Another example of music providing comfort comes from the Battle of Mogadishu. In 1993, hostile Somalis launched a rocket-propelled grenade, downing Mike Durant’s helicopter and badly injuring him. As the sole survivor of the crash, Durant was captured, later shot in the arm, and held captive for 11 days. During that time, American helicopters flew near the location Durant was being held to play music from loudspeakers. Later in his captivity, Durant received a radio from his captors. After learning this, his comrades launched radio request after radio request to the local disk jockey, who obliged by playing songs from Willie Nelson to Meatloaf. One song in particular spoke to him: “Rooster” by Alice in Chains. Durant writes, “it seemed like every line had been written for me,” and “the impact of hearing that song was a soaring morale boost.”[41] Music’s role after conflict is an important one. Music has been shown to reduce stress and stress-related hormones.[42] Similar to leveraging music in military recruiting, music can provide context to an individual’s experiences, encourage behaviors, and influence moods.[43] The emotional trauma created by killing, death in general, and facing one’s own mortality present a heavy weight that is exacerbated by the advancements of contemporary warfare. As troops prepare to fight the next day, they must have an outlet to come off the adrenaline high. As troops leave the battlefield, they must have accompaniment to make that transition. Men of the Civil War would oftentimes travel weeks to months to get back home.[44] Soldiers of today can find themselves fighting insurgents on Monday and home in the US later that week. The expedited logistics supporting the transformation of warfighter to civilian can oftentimes outpace the emotional transformation of that warfighter. Just as Mike Durant found inspiration and motivation in the lyrics of Rooster, so too can contemporary warfighters returning from the battlefield. Comparing the American Civil War to more contemporary warfare before, during, and after battle shows that while the character of music has evolved, music’s role has remained the same. Music is a powerful tool to tap into emotions for rallying around a cause and recruiting. It is a conditioning tool to compel civilians to become warriors and provides critical communications for the collective force. Music can be used as a non-lethal weapon on the battlefield, offering a means to intimidate the enemy or psychologically assault them. Finally, and most importantly, music provides a means for troops to recover or add context to their experiences between battles or after the war. The psychological toll of killing and combat can be a catalyst of depression, post-combat stress, or other emotional issues. Music provides at least one avenue of assistance. Oliver Sacks, best-selling author and professor of neurology at NYU School Of Medicine, puts it this way: “Music can lift us out of depression or move us to tears – it is a remedy, a tonic, orange juice for the ear. But for many of my neurological patients, music is even more – it can provide access, even when no medication can, to movement, to speech, to life. For them, music is not a luxury, but a necessity.”[45] The author wishes to thank Lt. Col. Laura Lannigan, Maj. Joseph Marxsen, Maj. Rob Campbell and Ms. Kelsi Kustelski for their thoughtful comments and suggestions. Maj. Andy Sexton is an Air Force Combat Systems Officer with multiple combat deployments in the U-28A. He is a 2009 graduate from Arkansas Tech University, a 2015 graduate from the University of Arkansas, and a 2024 graduate from Air Command and Staff College. He currently serves as Fixed Wing Requirements Manager for US Special Operations Command. This research originated in the ACSC elective On Killing [1] John Dick. “Johnny Cash Pilgrimage: The Man in Black’s Social Justice Legacy.” People’s World, September 25, 2017. [2] Christian McWhirter. Battle Hymns: The Power and Popularity of Music in the Civil War. United States. University of North Carolina Press, 2012. [3] The Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Incorporated, 2022. [4] Pete Seeger, "John Brown's Body" American Favorite Ballads. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Folkway Recordings, 2004. [5] Franny Nudelman. John Brown's Body: Slavery, Violence, and the Culture of War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015. [6] Mathew Sabatella and the Rambling String Band, "The Battle Cry of Freedom," Songs in the Life of Abraham Lincoln, 2009. [7] Steven Cornelius, Music of the Civil War Era. Westport, CT: ABC-Clio, 2004. [8] Toby Keith, "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue," 2009. [9] Danielle Kurtzleben. “Toby Keith’s ‘Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue’ Lives on in MAGA Country.” NPR, February 16, 2024. [10] Toby Keith, vocalist. Unleashed, Nashville: Dreamworks Nashville, 2002. [11] U.S. Navy Commercial (2001-2005). [12] Eric Milzarski. “Why Godsmack Was Used in Navy Recruitment Ads Is Kinda Awesome” We Are The Mighty. Accessed April 4 , 2024. [13] Congress of the United States, Congressional Budget Office. “Recruiting, Retention, and Future Levels of Military Personnel,” October 2006. [14] Tamara Koehler. “Does Music Cause Murder?” New Bedford Standard-Times. Accessed April 3, 2024. [15] Steve Karmen. Who Killed the Jingle?: How a Unique American Art Form Disappeared. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard, 2004. [16] The United States Army Field Band, "The Battle Hymn of the Republic," 2016. [17] Nudelman. John Brown's Body. [18] Radio X. “How Johnny Cash’s Hurt Cover Gave Him a Whole New Audience.” Accessed April 3, 2024. [19] Logan Tapscott. “From Playing Music to Healing the Wounded: The 26th North Carolina Infantry Band’s Role in the Battle of Gettysburg.” The Gettysburg Compiler, January 19, 2012. [20] Cornelius. Music of the Civil War Era.. [21] Sarah Mahler Kraaz. Music and War in the United States. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2018. [22] Jose A. Lugo-Santiago. “‘Reveille’ and ‘Retreat’: If You Hear It, Here’s What to Do.” Joint Base San Antonio. Accessed April 4, 2024. [23] Daniel Lile. “3 AF Sirens Civilians, Dependents Should Know,” November 5, 2015. [24] Travis G. Salley. “Sound-off! An Introduction to the Study of American Military Marching Cadences.” Thesis, Masters of Music, University of Massachusetts Amherst (2015) Accessed April 1, 2024. [25] Army Education Benefits Blog. “A-10, A-10 Flyin’ High.” Accessed April 8, 2024. [26] Salley. “Sound-off!" [27] Neil Diamond, vocalist. "Sweet Caroline (Good Times Never Seemed So Good)", Memphis: American Sound Studio, 1969. [28] Dave Grossman. On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society. New York: Open Road Media, 2014. [29] Craig A. Warren. The Rebel Yell: A Cultural History. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2014, 20. [30] Ibid, 23. [31] Joint Publication 3-13.2, Psychological Operations, January 7, 2010. [32] Suzanne G. Cusick. "Music as Torture/Music as Weapon." In The Auditory Culture Reader, ed. Michael Bull and Les Back. New York: Routledge, 2020: pp. 379-391. [33] Gavin Haynes. “How Manuel Noriega Surrendered to the Sanity-Destroying Power of Mallrat Music.” The Guardian, May 30, 2017. [34] Dexter Filkins. The Forever War. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2008. [35] Grossman, On Killing. [36] Cornelius, Music of the Civil War Era. [37] Bell Irvin Wiley. The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978. [38] The 97th Regimental String Band, "Just Before the Battle Mother," Songs of the Civil War, 1990. [39] American Battlefield Trust. “Civil War Music: Just Before the Battle, Mother.” Accessed April 7, 2024. [40] Sebastian Junger and Tim Hetherington. Restrepo. Washington D.C.: National Geographic Entertainment, 2010. [41] Michael J. Durant and Steven Hartov. In The Company Of Heroes. New York: Penguin Publishing Group, 2004. [42] “How Music Can Reduce Stress and Improve Mental Health” Harmony & Healing, November 21, 2023. [43] Koehler, “Does Music Cause Murder?” [44] Rodney Lackey. “Notes on Civil War Logistics Facts & Stories” n.d. [45] Oliver Sacks. Musicophilia: Tales of Music and the Brain. Toronto: Knopf Canada, 2010. “The only thing good to come out of a war is a song.”[1] –Johnny Cash From Black Sabbath’s “War Pigs” to Creedence Clearwater Revival’s “Fortunate Son,” songs commonly find their inspiration from the experiences of human conflict in combat. The opposite effect is true as well—music has had a palpable impact on warfare and killing. Through the ages, music has been used to organize and motivate soldiers as they leave their homes for the front lines, as they march into battle, and as they march off the battlefield. During the American Civil War, instruments like the fife, drum, and bugle were used for drill, troop movement, battlefield communications, and ceremonies.[2] But what about more contemporary warfare? While bugle and drum corps largely ceased to march into battle alongside warriors after the Civil War, music continues to shape the killing experience and warfare at large. Comparing the American Civil War to more contemporary warfare before, during, and after battle illustrates the sustained role of music through the ages of warfare and killing. Music, for this discussion, is defined as “the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity.”[3] While many of the examples of music discussed include rhythm, melody, or harmony, some do not. Music may or may not be a thing of beauty. “Twinkle Twinkle Little Star” can be a sweet lullaby as a parent puts their infant to sleep, but as that same child grows and learns the song on violin, it becomes a series of jerky screeches met with a parent’s grimaces and forced smiles. In short, not all music is music to our ears. Prior to troops marching into battle during the Civil War, music was used to rally and recruit. In 1859, the hanging of abolitionist John Brown at Harper’s Ferry provided sympathizers with lyrics that they applied to an existing tune. The song, “John Brown’s Body” uses the melody of the tune we now know as "The Battle Hymn of the Republic."[4] The song featured lyrics such as “John Brown’s body lies a-mouldering in the grave. His soul is marching on,” and “They will hang Jeff Davis to a tree! As they march along!”[5] This provided Union soldiers with a tangible rallying cry that not only explained why they were marching into battle but also reinforced the concept of killing the enemy. Later in the war, “The Battle Cry of Freedom” by George Root was written in response to President Abraham Lincoln’s call for additional troops.[6] Aside from recruiting, it refocused attention on preserving the Union and provided troops with shared pride and individual courage with lyrics like “The Union forever, Hurrah! Boys, hurrah! Down with the traitors, up with the stars; While we rally round the flag boys, rally once again, shouting the battle cry of Freedom.”[7] In contemporary conflict, music is used similarly to motivate those about to deploy. Months after the terrorist attacks on the US homeland, country artist Toby Keith released his song “Courtesy of the Red, White, and Blue.”[8] He sang the lyrics “You'll be sorry that you messed with the U.S. of A….'cause we'll put a boot in you’re a**, it's the American way” to deployed troops during his United Services Organization (USO) tours. In her analysis of the cultural impact of country music, Professor Nadine Hubbs put the song into context, "After 9/11, he had written and was singing it for these working-class kids overseas, many of whom were about to go into harm's way."[9] Like “John Brown’s Body,” Mr. Keith’s song channels anger and offers violence against the adversary as a solution. Although his “boot” falls short of killing, many other lyrics allude to the concept, such as “justice will be served” and “it’s gonna be hell.”[10] Against the backdrop of the Global War on Terror in the mid-2000s, the US Navy used Godsmack’s song “Awake” for its recruiting commercials.[11] The ballad features powerful drums and adrenalizing lyrics that focus on overcoming pain to provide protection for others. Unlike “The Battle Cry of Freedom,” Godsmack’s “Awake” was not written for the war effort. Lead singer Sully Erna stated, “I doubt very seriously that a kid is going to join the Marines of the US Navy because he heard Godsmack in the commercial.”[12] However, a Congressional Budget Office study conducted immediately after the airing of this recruiting campaign shows that the Navy was able to decrease its number of active-duty recruiters and reduce its enlistment bonuses while still meeting its recruiting goals.[13] Leveraging music as a recruiting tool is important as it has a significant impact on an individual's thinking and behavior. The link between music and various cortexes of the brain produces emotional and cognitive responses. Despite the difficult task of predicting exactly how an individual will react to a song, studies have shown that music can provide context to an individual’s experiences, encourage certain behaviors, and influence particular moods—all components that can inspire action.[14] Popular music increases this impact. Earworms can work into an individual's subconscious, stay with them for a long time, and take them back to the recruiting song long after the initial exposure. Popular music can also create a social buzz.[15] The song “John Brown’s Body” took on a life of its own beyond its original lyrics. Confederate soldiers adopted the song for their own use by changing who was hanging from the tree—John Brown instead of Jeff Davis. Furthermore, poet Julia Ward Howe evolved the song from scenes of hanging men to the “righteous scenes” of the “Battle Hymn of the Republic” that we know today.[16] With each iteration, the song was prolonged.[17] Like Johnny Cash’s reflective cover of the emotional ballad “Hurt” by Nine Inch Nails, the newer version gave the previous song a new life. The social buzz behind the song continued to evoke emotions, fight for versions of justice, and work to influence others to join the cause.[18] Marching closer to the fight, music continued to impact those on the Civil War battlefield. As previously mentioned, drums, fifes, and bugles played a significant role for the organization and movement of troops. In fact, ten bands were present at the Battle of Gettysburg.[19] Signals from these musicians would mark the daily battle rhythm of activities including wake-up, lights-out, roll call, and drill. Field musicians marked time while marching and were used to convey commands on the battlefield, as these signals carried much farther than a commander’s voice.[20] The presence of these musicians in today’s combat seems out of place. In fact, drum and bugle corps largely fell out of use for US forces after the Civil War.[21] Despite sunsetting these musicians, much of the music still resonates today. Military installations still mark the beginning of the day with a bugle playing “Reveille” and the end of the day with a bugle playing “Retreat.”[22] Albeit recorded, the music still contributes to communicating daily battle rhythm. Gone are the days of bugles sounding to take cover. Instead, a warbling tone is projected from a loudspeaker indicating indirect fires are imminent.[23] Aside from ceremonies, gone are the days of marching to a drum. However, running cadences have kept units in sync. Originating during World War II, running cadences, or “jodies,” oftentimes use graphic lyrics in call-and-response type chants and jingles.[24] For example: A-10, A-10 flyin’ high; Drop that napalm from the sky! See that Commie down by the river; Drop that napalm watch him quiver!” [25] Themes of killing and death are oftentimes paired with dark humor within cadences. These songs are commonly used in training by those new to the military.[26] Music’s character in preparing troops for the battlefield has evolved, but its nature remains the same. The continued role of music prior to battle is to organize, train, and equip troops to kill. It marks a standardized schedule across the force, applies pressure to conform to the larger body, and desensitizes the idea of killing. Repetition in drill leads to conditioning and trains human reflexes. For example, simply singing “Sweet Caroline!” in a sports crowd will oftentimes lead to a response of “ba! ba! ba!”[27] Similarly, many veterans will spontaneously clinch their fists and pop to attention upon hearing the drumroll prelude to the Star-Spangled Banner. In terms of music, combining the study of Pavlov’s bell with a military culture that dehumanizes killing creates the conditions for troops to kill.[28] The Civil War postured music as a weapon with the introduction of the Rebel Yell. The rebel yell was a tactic used by Confederate fighters where they projected a chorus of high-pitched shouts. Described as a “shrill, ringing scream,” the battle cry was used to intimidate Union forces and boost Confederate morale as they charged forward. Confederate Major John P. Pirtle described its effectiveness this way: “On moved the line unchecked by the heavy fire it met, closer and closer it came, until it seemed that there would be work for the bayonet, when suddenly the Federal line broke, panic-stricken and, in a confused mass, fled to the river.”[29] Various Union soldier accounts describe the sound as fearful, appalling, earsplitting, blood-curdling, and hair-raising. Within the Confederate lines, the rebel yell served to suppress the rebels’ own fears and bolster their morale. One Confederate general reflected: “(The rebel yell) was really an inspiration arising from facing danger and death.” Another Confederate veteran stated, “I said if I ever went into a charge, I wouldn’t holler! But the very first time I fired off my gun I hollered as loud as I could, and I hollered every breath till we stopped.”[30] In contemporary terms, a tactic such as the rebel yell would be classified as “psyops” or psychological operations. Joint Publication 3-13.2 defines the concept as “Planned operations to convey selected information and indicators to foreign audiences to influence their emotions, motives, objective reasoning, and ultimately the behavior of foreign governments, organizations, groups, and individuals.”[31] An example of this occurred during 1989’s OPERATION JUST CAUSE. After General Manuel Noriega annulled the results of the Panamanian election, US forces invaded Panama to depose the dictator and reinstate a democratically elected government. Noriega retreated to the Vatican Embassy where US forces blasted high-decibel music via loudspeakers at him for fifteen days in an attempt to coax him out.[32] The well-curated playlist included “Panama” by Van Halen, “I Fought the Law” by The Clash, and “Run Like Hell” by Pink Floyd.[33] Another example is from OPERATION IRAQI FREEDOM. As US forces entered Fallujah, Humvees blasted AC/DC’s “Hell’s Bells.” Similar to the Confederate rebel yell, US forces sought to push back would-be fighters while instilling courage among their own ranks.[34] Music’s style as a weapon continues to evolve on the battlefield. Despite the change from acapella work in the Civil War to rock ballads in contemporary warfare, the reasons behind using it remain the same. In his book On Killing, Dave Grossman discusses the concept of posturing. He argues that by posturing, soldiers seek to daunt enemies via other means prior to physical conflict. Additionally, this tactic encourages one another and reinforces individual ferocity.[35] This is evident in the rebel yell and the “walk-up music” of Marines in Fallujah. When the rules of engagement prohibited killing Manuel Noriega, music provided a means to reduce his will to fight or resist without resorting to violence. Music’s influence on warfare persisted after battles and between bouts of hostilities. During the Civil War, both Union and Confederate troops would unwind to music played in camp. With talents ranging from beginner to professional and with instruments ranging from acapella to full bands, camps would celebrate victories, console their losses, and prepare for what was to come next.[36] Sometimes this occurred away from camp. As one Confederate soldier wrote about his regiment’s train ride through North Carolina: “Some of us were on top of the cars; one fellow playing a fiddle, another fellow down in the car blowing a horn, all happy lords, yet knowing that at the same time we were going right into another big killing and many of us would go to our long homes.”[37] While many songs of the era provided accompaniment to dancing, others offered introspection. In addition to offering themes related to memories of family and nostalgia of home, the song “Just Before the Battle, Mother” also offered the themes of purpose, justice, and continued motivation.[38] The final verse goes: “Hark! I hear the bugles sounding, ‘tis the signal for the fight; Now, may God protect us, mother, as He ever does the right; Hear the “Battle-Cry of Freedom,” how it swells upon the air; Oh, yes, we’ll rally ’round the standard, or we’ll perish nobly there.”[39] Music continues to accompany troops in contemporary warfare providing entertainment, motivation, and comfort. The 2010 documentary Restrepo follows a platoon of US soldiers in the Korengal Valley of Afghanistan. At the time, it was considered one of the most dangerous valleys in the war. PFC Juan Restrepo was the medic of his group and toted a guitar into the deployment. Guitar in hand, he would accompany and entertain his fellow soldiers between engagements until he was killed by Taliban fighters. In the documentary, the outlet of music was a critical feature to boost morale, reflect on loss, or simply decelerate an adrenaline-fueled year in combat.[40] Another example of music providing comfort comes from the Battle of Mogadishu. In 1993, hostile Somalis launched a rocket-propelled grenade, downing Mike Durant’s helicopter and badly injuring him. As the sole survivor of the crash, Durant was captured, later shot in the arm, and held captive for 11 days. During that time, American helicopters flew near the location Durant was being held to play music from loudspeakers. Later in his captivity, Durant received a radio from his captors. After learning this, his comrades launched radio request after radio request to the local disk jockey, who obliged by playing songs from Willie Nelson to Meatloaf. One song in particular spoke to him: “Rooster” by Alice in Chains. Durant writes, “it seemed like every line had been written for me,” and “the impact of hearing that song was a soaring morale boost.”[41] Music’s role after conflict is an important one. Music has been shown to reduce stress and stress-related hormones.[42] Similar to leveraging music in military recruiting, music can provide context to an individual’s experiences, encourage behaviors, and influence moods.[43] The emotional trauma created by killing, death in general, and facing one’s own mortality present a heavy weight that is exacerbated by the advancements of contemporary warfare. As troops prepare to fight the next day, they must have an outlet to come off the adrenaline high. As troops leave the battlefield, they must have accompaniment to make that transition. Men of the Civil War would oftentimes travel weeks to months to get back home.[44] Soldiers of today can find themselves fighting insurgents on Monday and home in the US later that week. The expedited logistics supporting the transformation of warfighter to civilian can oftentimes outpace the emotional transformation of that warfighter. Just as Mike Durant found inspiration and motivation in the lyrics of Rooster, so too can contemporary warfighters returning from the battlefield. Comparing the American Civil War to more contemporary warfare before, during, and after battle shows that while the character of music has evolved, music’s role has remained the same. Music is a powerful tool to tap into emotions for rallying around a cause and recruiting. It is a conditioning tool to compel civilians to become warriors and provides critical communications for the collective force. Music can be used as a non-lethal weapon on the battlefield, offering a means to intimidate the enemy or psychologically assault them. Finally, and most importantly, music provides a means for troops to recover or add context to their experiences between battles or after the war. The psychological toll of killing and combat can be a catalyst of depression, post-combat stress, or other emotional issues. Music provides at least one avenue of assistance. Oliver Sacks, best-selling author and professor of neurology at NYU School Of Medicine, puts it this way: “Music can lift us out of depression or move us to tears – it is a remedy, a tonic, orange juice for the ear. But for many of my neurological patients, music is even more – it can provide access, even when no medication can, to movement, to speech, to life. For them, music is not a luxury, but a necessity.”[45] Notes I wish to thank LtCol Laura Lannigan, Maj Joseph Marxsen, Maj Rob Campbell, and Ms. Kelsi Kustelski for their thoughtful comments and suggestions. All errors found therein are my own. This research originated in the ACSC elective On Killing [1] John Dick. “Johnny Cash Pilgrimage: The Man in Black’s Social Justice Legacy.” People’s World, September 25, 2017. https://www.peoplesworld.org/article/johnny-cash-pilgrimage-the-man-in-blacks-social-justice-legacy/ [2] Christian McWhirter. Battle Hymns: The Power and Popularity of Music in the Civil War. United States. University of North Carolina Press, 2012. [3] The Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster Incorporated, 2022. [4] https://youtu.be/StFB2g0urhA?si=uOmkklk4nRY--_BZ [5] Franny Nudelman. John Brown's Body: Slavery, Violence, and the Culture of War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015. [6] https://youtu.be/MGKnc_YiR-E?si=iSrKHgeqmWTeE5c- [7] Steven Cornelius. Music of the Civil War Era. Westport, CT: ABC-CLIO, 2004. [8] https://youtu.be/ruNrdmjcNTc?si=bbSkl3TaeU-1r27V [9] Danielle Kurtzleben. “Toby Keith’s ‘Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue’ Lives on in MAGA Country.” NPR, February 16, 2024. https://www.npr.org/2024/02/16/1231780441/toby-keith-donald-trump-courtesy-of-the-red-white-and-blue [10] Toby Keith, vocalist. Unleashed, Nashville: Dreamworks Nashville, 2002. [11] https://youtu.be/iNmKhlw4TAw?si=DKHcf_TooQl2K5q2 [12] Eric Milzarski. “Why Godsmack Was Used in Navy Recruitment Ads Is Kinda Awesome” We Are The Mighty. Accessed April 4 , 2024. https://www.wearethemighty.com/popular/godsmack-navy-recruitment-ads/#:~:text=The%20band's%20main%20demographic%2C%20males,obvious%20fanbase%20within%20the%20Navy). [13] Congress of the United States, Congressional Budget Office. “Recruiting, Retention, and Future Levels of Military Personnel,” October 2006. https://www.cbo.gov/publication/18187 [14] Tamara Koehler. “Does Music Cause Murder?” New Bedford Standard-Times. Accessed April 3, 2024. https://www.southcoasttoday.com/story/lifestyle/1999/06/15/does-music-cause-murder/50515969007/ [15] Steve Karmen. Who Killed the Jingle?: How a Unique American Art Form Disappeared. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard, 2004. [16] https://youtu.be/Jy6AOGRsR80?si=Ik0_NDz2TBnpn3A5 [17] Franny Nudelman. John Brown's Body: Slavery, Violence, and the Culture of War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015. [18] Radio X. “How Johnny Cash’s Hurt Cover Gave Him a Whole New Audience.” Accessed April 3, 2024. https://www.radiox.co.uk/features/why-did-johnny-cash-cover-hurt/ [19] Logan Tapscott. “From Playing Music to Healing the Wounded: The 26th North Carolina Infantry Band’s Role in the Battle of Gettysburg.” The Gettysburg Compiler, January 19, 2012. https://gettysburgcompiler.org/2012/01/19/from-playing-music-to-healing-the-wounded-the/#:~:text=As%20medics%2C%20the%20band%20members,their%20support%20for%20their%20comrades. [20] Cornelius. Music of the Civil War Era.. [21] Sarah Mahler Kraaz. Music and War in the United States. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2018. [22] Jose A. Lugo-Santiago. “‘Reveille’ and ‘Retreat’: If You Hear It, Here’s What to Do.” Joint Base San Antonio. Accessed April 4, 2024. https://www.jbsa.mil/News/News/Article/1601635/reveille-and-retreat-if-you-hear-it-heres-what-to-do/#:~:text=Regarding%20courtesies%20while%20in%20civilian,of%20the%20road%20and%20stop. [23] Daniel Lile. “3 AF Sirens Civilians, Dependents Should Know,” November 5, 2015. https://www.incirlik.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/724951/3-af-sirens-civilians-dependents-should-know/ [24] Travis G. Salley. “Sound-off! An Introduction to the Study of American Military Marching Cadences.” Thesis, Masters of Music, University of Massachusetts Amherst (2015) Accessed April 1, 2024. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/entities/publication/63678853-0c3f-4064-b581-81ff962741bb [25] Army Education Benefits Blog. “A-10, A-10 Flyin’ High.” Accessed April 8, 2024. https://www.armystudyguide.com/content/cadence/running_cadence/a10-a10-flyin-high.shtml [26] Salley. “Sound-off! An Introduction to the Study of American Military Marching Cadences.” Accessed April 1, 2024. https://doi.org/10.7275/6949713. [27] Neil Diamond, vocalist. Sweet Caroline (Good Times Never Seemed So Good), Memphis: American Sound Studio, 1969. [28] Dave Grossman. On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society. New York: Open Road Media, 2014. [29] Craig A. Warren. The Rebel Yell: A Cultural History. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2014, 20. [30] Ibid, 23. [31] Joint Publication 3-13.2, Psychological Operations, January 7, 2010. https://irp.fas.org/doddir/dod/jp3-13-2.pdf [32] Suzanne G. Cusick. "Music as Torture/Music as Weapon." In The Auditory Culture Reader, ed. Michael Bull and Les Back. New York: Routledge, 2020: pp. 379-391. [33] Gavin Haynes. “How Manuel Noriega Surrendered to the Sanity-Destroying Power of Mallrat Music.” The Guardian, May 30, 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/world/shortcuts/2017/may/30/noriega-panama-music-playlist [34] Dexter Filkins. The Forever War. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2008. [35] Grossman, On Killing. [36] Cornelius, Music of the Civil War Era. [37] Bell Irvin Wiley. The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978. [38] https://youtu.be/knhGxtreGrE?si=kv5gPt21ITDByWID [39] American Battlefield Trust. “Civil War Music: Just Before the Battle, Mother.” Accessed April 7, 2024. https://www.battlefields.org/learn/primary-sources/civil-war-music-just-battle-mother. [40] Sebastian Junger and Tim Hetherington. Restrepo. Washington D.C.: National Geographic Entertainment, 2010. [41] Michael J. Durant and Steven Hartov. In The Company Of Heroes. New York: Penguin Publishing Group, 2004. [42] “How Music Can Reduce Stress and Improve Mental Health” Harmony & Healing, November 21, 2023. “How Music Can Reduce Stress and Improve Mental Health - Harmony & Healing,” [43] Koehler, “Does Music Cause Murder?” [44] Rodney Lackey. “Notes on Civil War Logistics Facts & Stories:,” n.d. https://transportation.army.mil/history/pdf/Peninsula_Campaign/Rodney%20Lackey%20Article_1.pdf [45] Oliver Sacks. Musicophilia: Tales of Music and the Brain. Toronto: Knopf Canada, 2010.